Update math_books.md

Author: AudreyYZY

app/docs/ai/ai-math-basics/math_books.md

@@ -112,6 +112,4 @@ tags:
 - [从数学到哲学](https://book.douban.com/subject/36532721/) — 王浩 (Hao Wang)  
   探讨形式逻辑、哥德尔不完备性、数学基础与哲学命题的关系。  
 
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-<img width="415" height="688" alt="image" src="https://github.com/user-attachments/assets/5cfcebae-453c-4709-bc26-0d9b65582c01" />