From 93f56cf2ad3fa0c95807e12fc505d2a22b369577 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Oscar Levin Date: Thu, 9 Oct 2025 19:55:04 -0600 Subject: [PATCH] add 2.6 exercises --- source/chap-2.xml | 3 +- source/sec-2-6-inverse.xml | 593 +++++-------------------------------- 2 files changed, 71 insertions(+), 525 deletions(-) diff --git a/source/chap-2.xml b/source/chap-2.xml index 31c8918..9d004a1 100644 --- a/source/chap-2.xml +++ b/source/chap-2.xml @@ -9,7 +9,8 @@ - diff --git a/source/sec-2-6-inverse.xml b/source/sec-2-6-inverse.xml index 69bbfd8..b2f66ca 100644 --- a/source/sec-2-6-inverse.xml +++ b/source/sec-2-6-inverse.xml @@ -3,532 +3,77 @@
Derivatives of inverse functions - -
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    - What is the derivative of the natural logarithm function? -

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    - What are the derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions - \arcsin(x) and \arctan(x)? -

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    - If g is the inverse of a differentiable function f, - how is g' computed in terms of f, f', - and g? -

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- - - Introduction -

- Much of mathematics relies on the notion of function. - Indeed, throughout our study of calculus, - we are investigating the behavior of functions, - with particular emphasis on how fast the output of the function changes in response to changes in the input. - Because each function represents a process, - a natural question to ask is whether or not the particular process can be reversed. - That is, if we know the output that results from the function, - can we determine the input that led to it? - And - if we know how fast a particular process is changing, - can we determine how fast the inverse process is changing? -

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- One of the most important functions in all of mathematics is the natural exponential function f(x) = e^x, along with - its inverse, the natural logarithm g(x) = \ln(x). - One of our goals in this section is to learn how to differentiate the logarithm function. - First, we review some of the basic concepts surrounding functions and their inverses. -

- - - - - - - Basic facts about inverse functions -

- A function - function - f : A \to B is a rule that associates each element in the set A to one and only one element in the set B. - We call A the domain - domain - of f and B the - codomain - codomain - of f. - If there exists a function g : B \to A such that - g(f(a)) = a for every possible choice of a in the set A and - f(g(b)) = b for every b in the set B, - then we say that g is the - inverse of f. -

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- We often use the notation f^{-1} - (read f-inverse) - to denote the inverse of f. - The inverse function undoes the work of f. - Indeed, if y = f(x), then - - f^{-1}(y) = f^{-1}(f(x)) = x - . - Thus, the equations y = f(x) and - x = f^{-1}(y) say the same thing. - The only difference between the two equations is one of perspective one is solved for x, - while the other is solved for y. -

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- Here we briefly remind ourselves of some key facts about inverse functions. -

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- For a function f : A \to B, - -

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    - f has an inverse if and only if f is one-to-one - one-to-one - A function f is one-to-one - provided that no two distinct inputs lead to the same output. A one-to-one function is sometimes called an injection. - and onto - onto - A function f is onto - provided that every possible element of the codomain can be realized as an output of the function for some choice of input from the domain. An onto function is sometimes called a surjection. - ; -

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    - provided f^{-1} exists, - the domain of f^{-1} is the codomain of f, - and the codomain of f^{-1} is the domain of f; -

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    - f^{-1}(f(x)) = x for every x in the domain of f and - f(f^{-1}(y)) = y for every y in the codomain of f; -

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    - y = f(x) if and only if x = f^{-1}(y). -

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- The last fact reveals a special relationship between the graphs of f and f^{-1}. - If a point (x,y) that lies on the graph of y = f(x), - then it is also true that x = f^{-1}(y), - which means that the point (y,x) lies on the graph of f^{-1} (provided we view f^{-1} as a function of the same independent variable, x). - This shows us that the graphs of f and f^{-1} are the reflections of each other across the line y = x, - because this reflection is precisely the geometric action that swaps the coordinates in an ordered pair. - In Figure, - we see this illustrated by the function y = f(x) = 2^x and its inverse, - with the points (-1,\frac{1}{2}) and - (\frac{1}{2},-1) highlighting the reflection of the curves across y = x. -

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- To close our review of important facts about inverses, - we recall that the natural exponential function - y = f(x) = e^x has an inverse function, - namely the natural logarithm, - x = f^{-1}(y) = \ln(y). - Thus, writing y = e^x is interchangeable with x = \ln(y), - plus \ln(e^x) = x for every real number x and - e^{\ln(y)} = y for every positive real number y. -

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- A graph of a function y = f(x) along with its inverse, y = f^{-1}(x). - -
- - - - - - The derivative of the natural logarithm function -

- In what follows, - we find a formula for the derivative of g(x) = \ln(x). - To do so, we take advantage of the fact that we know the derivative of the natural exponential function, - the inverse of g. - In particular, we know that writing - g(x) = \ln(x) is equivalent to writing e^{g(x)} = x. - Now we differentiate both sides of this equation and observe that - - \frac{d}{dx}\left[e^{g(x)}\right] = \frac{d}{dx}[x] - . -

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- The righthand side is simply 1; - by applying the chain rule to the left side, we find that - - e^{g(x)} g'(x) = 1 - . -

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- Next we solve for g'(x), to get - - g'(x) = \frac{1}{e^{g(x)}} - . -

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- Finally, we recall that g(x) = \ln(x), so - e^{g(x)} = e^{\ln(x)} = x, and thus - - g'(x) = \frac{1}{x} - . -

- - - The derivative of the natural logarithm -

- derivativelogarithm - For all positive real numbers x, - \frac{d}{dx}[\ln(x)] = \frac{1}{x}. -

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- This rule for the natural logarithm function now joins our list of basic derivative rules. - Note that this rule applies only to positive values of x, - as these are the only values for which \ln(x) is defined. -

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- Also notice that for the first time in our work, - differentiating a basic function of a particular type has led to a function of a very different nature: - the derivative of the natural logarithm is not another logarithm, - nor even an exponential function, - but rather a rational one. -

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- Derivatives of logarithms may now be computed in concert with all of the rules known to date. - For instance, if f(t) = \ln(t^2 + 1), - then by the chain rule, f'(t) = \frac{1}{t^2 + 1} \cdot 2t. -

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- There are interesting connections between the graphs of - f(x) = e^x and f^{-1}(x) = \ln(x). -

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- In Figure, - we are reminded that since the natural exponential function has the property that its derivative is itself, - the slope of the tangent to y = e^x is equal to the height of the curve at that point. - For instance, at the point A = (\ln(0.5), 0.5), - the slope of the tangent line is m_A = 0.5, - and at B = (\ln(5), 5), - the tangent line's slope is m_B = 5. - At the corresponding points A' and B' on the graph of the natural logarithm function - (which come from reflecting A and B across the line y = x), - we know that the slope of the tangent line is the reciprocal of the x-coordinate of the point (since \frac{d}{dx}[\ln(x)] = \frac{1}{x}). Thus, at A' = (0.5, \ln(0.5)), - we have m_{A'} = \frac{1}{0.5} = 2, - and at B' = (5, \ln(5)), - m_{B'} = \frac{1}{5}. -

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- A graph of the function y = e^x along with its inverse, y = \ln(x), where both functions are viewed using the input variable x. - -
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- In particular, we observe that - m_{A'} = \frac{1}{m_A} and m_{B'} = \frac{1}{m_B}. - This is not a coincidence, - but in fact holds for any function y = f(x) that has an inverse, - due to the reflection across y = x. - Reflection changes the roles of x and y, - thus reversing the rise and run, - so the slope of the inverse function at the reflected point is the reciprocal of the slope of the original function. -

- - - - - - Inverse trigonometric functions and their derivatives -

- Trigonometric functions are periodic, - so they fail to be one-to-one, - and thus do not have inverse functions. - However, we can restrict the domain of each trigonometric function - so that it is one-to-one on that domain. -

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- For instance, - consider the sine function on the domain [-\frac{\pi}{2}, \frac{\pi}{2}]. - Because no output of the sine function is repeated on this interval, - the function is one-to-one and thus has an inverse. - Thus, the function f(x) = \sin(x) with - [-\frac{\pi}{2}, \frac{\pi}{2}] and codomain [-1,1] - has an inverse function f^{-1} such that - - f^{-1} : [-1,1] \to [-\frac{\pi}{2}, \frac{\pi}{2}] - , as we see in Figure. We call f^{-1} the arcsine - arcsine - (or inverse sine) function and write f^{-1}(y) = \arcsin(y). - The arcsine of y - means the angle whose sine is y. It is especially important to remember that - - y = \sin(x) \ \ \text{and} \ \ x = \arcsin(y) - - say the same thing. -

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- A graph of f(x) = \sin(x) (in blue), restricted to the domain [-\frac{\pi}{2}, \frac{\pi}{2}], along with its inverse, f^{-1}(x) = \arcsin(x) (in magenta). - -
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- For example, - \arcsin(\frac{1}{2}) = \frac{\pi}{6} means that - \frac{\pi}{6} is the angle whose sine is \frac{1}{2}, - which is equivalent to writing \sin(\frac{\pi}{6}) = \frac{1}{2}. -

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- Next, we determine the derivative of the arcsine function. - Letting h(x) = \arcsin(x), - our goal is to find h'(x). - Since h(x) is the angle whose sine is x, - it is equivalent to write - - \sin(h(x)) = x - . -

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- Differentiating both sides of the previous equation, we have - - \frac{d}{dx}[\sin(h(x))] = \frac{d}{dx}[x] - . - The righthand side is simply 1, - and by applying the chain rule applied to the left side, - - \cos(h(x)) h'(x) = 1 - . -

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- Solving for h'(x), it follows that - - h'(x) = \frac{1}{\cos(h(x))} - . -

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- Finally, we recall that h(x) = \arcsin(x), - so the denominator of h'(x) is the function \cos(\arcsin(x)), - or in other words, - the cosine of the angle whose sine is x. - A bit of right triangle trigonometry allows us to simplify this expression considerably. -

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- Let's say that \theta = \arcsin(x), - so that \theta is the angle whose sine is x. - We can picture \theta as an angle in a right triangle with hypotenuse 1 and a vertical leg of length x, - as shown in Figure. - The horizontal leg must be \sqrt{1-x^2}, - by the Pythagorean Theorem. - Now, because - \theta = \arcsin(x), it follows that - - \cos(\arcsin(x)) \amp= \cos(\theta) - \amp= \sqrt{1-x^2} - - with the last equality holding from the relationships in the right triangle in Figure. -

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- The right triangle that corresponds to \theta = \arcsin(x). - -
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- Substituting this most recent expression for \cos(\arcsin(x)) into Equation, we have now shown that - - h'(x) = \frac{1}{\cos(\arcsin(x))} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}} - . -

- - - The derivative of the arcsine function -

- derivativearcsine - For all real numbers x such that -1 \lt x \lt 1, - - \frac{d}{dx}[\arcsin(x)] = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}} - . -

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- While derivatives for other inverse trigonometric functions can be established similarly, - for now we limit ourselves to the arcsine and arctangent functions. -

- - - - - - The link between the derivative of a function and the derivative of its inverse -

- In Figure, - we saw an interesting relationship between the slopes of tangent lines to the natural exponential and natural logarithm functions at points reflected across the line y = x. - In particular, we observed that at the point - (\ln(2), 2) on the graph of f(x) = e^x, - the slope of the tangent line is f'(\ln(2)) = 2, - while at the corresponding point - (2, \ln(2)) on the graph of f^{-1}(x) = \ln(x), - the slope of the tangent line is (f^{-1})'(2) = \frac{1}{2}, - which is the reciprocal of f'(\ln(2)). -

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- That the two corresponding tangent lines have reciprocal slopes is not a coincidence. - If f and g are differentiable inverse functions, then - y = f(x) if and only if x = g(y), - so f(g(x)) = x for every x in the domain of f^{-1}. - Differentiating both sides of this equation, we have - - \frac{d}{dx} [f(g(x))] = \frac{d}{dx} [x] - , - and by the chain rule, - - f'(g(x)) g'(x) = 1 - . -

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- Solving for g'(x), we have g'(x) = \frac{1}{f'(g(x))}. - Here we see that the slope of the tangent line to the inverse function g at the point - (x,g(x)) is precisely the reciprocal of the slope of the tangent line to the original function f at the point (g(x),f(g(x))) = (g(x),x). -

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- To see this more clearly, - consider the graph of the function - y = f(x) shown in Figure, - along with its inverse y = g(x). - Given a point (a,b) that lies on the graph of f, - we know that (b,a) lies on the graph of g; - because f(a) = b and g(b) = a. -

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- A graph of function y = f(x) along with its inverse, y = g(x) = f^{-1}(x). Observe that the slopes of the two tangent lines are reciprocals of one another. - -
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- Now, applying the rule that - g'(x) = 1/f'(g(x)) to the value x = b, we have - - g'(b) = \frac{1}{f'(g(b))} = \frac{1}{f'(a)} - , - which is precisely what we see in the figure: - the slope of the tangent line to g at (b,a) is the reciprocal of the slope of the tangent line to f at (a,b), - since these two lines are reflections of one another across the line y = x. -

- - - The derivative of the inverse function -

- derivativeinverse - Suppose that f is a differentiable function with inverse g and that (a,b) is a point that lies on the graph of f at which f'(a) \ne 0. - Then - - g'(b) = \frac{1}{f'(a)} - . -

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- More generally, for any x in the domain of g', - we have g'(x) = 1/f'(g(x)). -

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- The rules we derived for \ln(x), \arcsin(x), - and \arctan(x) are all examples of this general property of the derivative of an inverse function. - For instance, - with g(x) = \ln(x) and f(x) = e^x, it follows that - - g'(x) = \frac{1}{f'(g(x))} = \frac{1}{e^{\ln(x)}} = \frac{1}{x} - . -

- - - - Summary -

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    - For all positive real numbers x, - \frac{d}{dx}[\ln(x)] = \frac{1}{x}. -

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    - For all real numbers x such that -1 \lt x \lt 1, - \frac{d}{dx}[\arcsin(x)] = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}}. - In addition, for all real numbers x, - \frac{d}{dx}[\arctan(x)] = \frac{1}{1+x^2}. -

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    - If g is the inverse of a differentiable function f, - then for any point x in the domain of g', - g'(x) = \frac{1}{f'(g(x))}. -

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+ Coming soon.

- + + Additional Practice + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +