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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en">
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<title>Home - kb.haeringer.org</title>
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<h1>kb.haeringer.org</h1>
</br>
<ul class="unstyled">
<li>
<div>
<div class="header">
<h2>Network performance testing with iperf</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Mo 26 November 2012</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Performance Testing/">Performance Testing</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>There are numerous tools for network performance testing, e.g. ttcp,
iperf, netperf or netIO. So far I haven't tested them all, but I found
iperf to be a pretty flexible, easy-to-use and convenient one. Iperf
needs to be run as server on one side and as client on ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<div class="span4">
</div>
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<li><hr /></li>
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<div class="header">
<h2>Find out the primary nameserver for a domain</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Mi 25 Juli 2012</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/DNS/">DNS</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>To find out the primary nameserver for a specific domain, there's a very
handy command in nslookup: <code>set querytype=soa</code></p>
<p>Example on Windows cmd - look for the "primary name server" output line
(on Linux it's called "origin"):</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="nl">C:</span><span class="err">\</span><span class="n">ben</span><span class="o">></span><span class="n">nslookup</span>
<span class="nl">Standardserver:</span> <span class="n">nameserv</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">example</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">local</span>
<span class="nl">Address:</span> <span class="mf">10.11.12 ...</span></pre></div>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<div class="header">
<h2>Juniper JunOS command reference</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>So 03 Juni 2012</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Cisco IOS/">Cisco IOS</a>, <a href="/tag/Command reference/">Command reference</a>, <a href="/tag/Juniper/">Juniper</a>, <a href="/tag/JunOS/">JunOS</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>When it comes to CLI syntax and handling, some network hardware vendors
more or less try to copy or at least lean on Cisco's IOS. Some may call
it lame, but it definitely makes life easier, because you get on an
unknown device and the chance to just guess ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<div class="header">
<h2>IP Tables Basics</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Di 17 April 2012</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Command reference/">Command reference</a>, <a href="/tag/Linux networking/">Linux networking</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>Here's a short reference on the basic configuration of an IP Tables
firewall on Debian Linux.</p>
<p>This assumes basic knowledge in firewalls. As with access lists in
general, the order of the statements is important and IP Tables
processes them from top to bottom.</p>
<p>If unsure with the commands ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<div class="header">
<h2>SSH public key method</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Mi 14 März 2012</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Linux networking/">Linux networking</a>, <a href="/tag/Management/">Management</a>, <a href="/tag/PuTTY/">PuTTY</a>, <a href="/tag/SSH/">SSH</a>, <a href="/tag/Windows client/">Windows client</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>People often still use simple password authentication to log onto
critical servers via SSH, which is not very secure especially on web
servers that are directly managed from the outside. A better method is
the use of asymmetric encryption with public and private keys.</p>
<p>You create a key pair on ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<div class="header">
<h2>MySQL administration commands</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Fr 10 Februar 2012</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Command reference/">Command reference</a>, <a href="/tag/MySQL/">MySQL</a>, <a href="/tag/SQL/">SQL</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>A small command reference for MySQL administration on Linux.<br />
</p>
<p>Show MySQL server status:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="c"># /etc/init.d/mysql status</span>
</pre></div>
<p>Location of MySQL configuration files:<br />
<code>/etc/my.cnf</code> - global configuration<br />
<code>/var/lib/mysql/my.cnf</code> - configuration per database<br />
<code>~/.my.cnf</code> - configuration per user</p>
<p>Enter MySQL command line as user root with password ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<div class="header">
<h2>Virtualization on ARM with LXC</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Do 06 Oktober 2011</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/ARM/">ARM</a>, <a href="/tag/Debian/">Debian</a>, <a href="/tag/LXC/">LXC</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>Recently I was searching for a virtualization solution for my ARM-based
QNAP TS-219P+ NAS device, running Debian Linux on it. On ARM, you cannot
use standard hypervisors like VMware or XEN (at least not yet), and KVM
for ARM is also not usable yet. There are bigger devices with x86 ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<div class="span4">
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<li><hr /></li>
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<div class="header">
<h2>oVirt relaunch - The Open Virtualization Platform</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Fr 23 September 2011</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Data center/">Data center</a>, <a href="/tag/Management/">Management</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>Among open source full virtualization solutions, KVM is currently the
most promising one. The kernel-based hypervisor is the backend of Red
Hat's RHEV, which is positioned as a competitor of VMware vSphere
(hypervisor ESX). Searching for a free open source solution to manage
KVM, I recently stumpled upon oVirt ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
<div class="row">
<div class="span4">
</div>
<div class="span1">
<a class="btn btn-small" href="/ovirt-relaunch-the-open-virtualization-platform.html" rel="bookmark" title="Permalink to oVirt relaunch - The Open Virtualization Platform">Mehr</a>
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</li>
<li><hr /></li>
<li>
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<div class="header">
<h2>Configuring a RAID1 with mdadm on Debian Squeeze</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Di 20 September 2011</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Debian/">Debian</a>, <a href="/tag/RAID/">RAID</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>Generally I have always thought software raids to be insecure, difficult
to handle and more a risk than a safety measure. But a RAID1 with the
Linux software <strong>mdadm</strong> is a safe mirror of your harddisk - in case of
a HD failure, you can put the remaining disk into any ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
<div class="row">
<div class="span4">
</div>
<div class="span1">
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<div class="header">
<h2>How to set up a DLNA (UPnP) Media Server with MiniDLNA</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Fr 24 Juni 2011</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/DLNA/">DLNA</a>, <a href="/tag/Media server/">Media server</a>, <a href="/tag/UPNP/">UPNP</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>MiniDLNA is a Linux server software with the aim of being fully
compliant with DLNA/UPnP-AV clients. It is developed by a NETGEAR
employee for the ReadyNAS product line. It is a great, lightweight, fast
and simple alternative to older media servers like TwonkyServer or
Mediatomb. This is about how ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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</li>
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<div class="header">
<h2>Configuring an Ethernet bridge on Debian</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Do 19 Mai 2011</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Debian/">Debian</a>, <a href="/tag/Linux networking/">Linux networking</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>In some cases it may be needed to configure an Ethernet interface as a
networking brigde, for example it is a common setup for some
virtualization hosts/hypervisors. With the bridge it is achieved that
the guest systems can communicate with the outside through the interface
eth0, each guest having ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<li><hr /></li>
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<div class="header">
<h2>Cisco config output without breaks</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Fr 04 März 2011</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/ASA/">ASA</a>, <a href="/tag/Cisco IOS/">Cisco IOS</a>, <a href="/tag/Logging/">Logging</a>, <a href="/tag/PuTTY/">PuTTY</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>By default, the output when you do a 'sh run' on Cisco devices is
divided into segments and you have to press 'Space' many times to show
the whole config. This can be annoying when you have PuTTY logging
enabled and quickly want to save the running config to your ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<li><hr /></li>
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<div class="header">
<h2>Packet capturing on Cisco ASA</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Do 17 Februar 2011</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/ASA/">ASA</a>, <a href="/tag/Cisco IOS/">Cisco IOS</a>, <a href="/tag/Packet capturing/">Packet capturing</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>The ASA5500 firewalls offer a great and simple packet capturing tool to
see if specific packets pass a certain interface.</p>
<p>First write an access list that defines the source and destination
address of the packets you want to see:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="n">access</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">list</span> <span class="n">CAPACL</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">TO</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">CME</span> <span class="n">extended</span> <span class="n">permit</span> <span class="n">udp</span> <span class="n">any</span> <span class="n">host</span> <span class="mf">10 ...</span></pre></div>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<div class="header">
<h2>How to set up OpenVPN on Debian</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Do 25 November 2010</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Certificates/">Certificates</a>, <a href="/tag/Linux networking/">Linux networking</a>, <a href="/tag/VPN/">VPN</a>, <a href="/tag/Windows client/">Windows client</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>This is how to set up OpenVPN to connect from a remote Windows client to
a Debian server.<br />
</p>
<p><strong>Download & install OpenVPN on the Debian server</strong></p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="n">apt</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">get</span> <span class="n">install</span> <span class="n">openvpn</span>
</pre></div>
<p>Create two subdirectories "keys":</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="n">mkdir</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">etc</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">openvpn</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">keys</span>
<span class="n">mkdir</span> <span class="o">/</span><span class="n">usr</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">share</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">doc</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">openvpn</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">examples</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">easy</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">rsa</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="mf">2.0</span><span class="o">/</span><span class="n">keys</span>
</pre></div>
<!--more-->
<p>The program ...</p></!--more-->
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<div class="header">
<h2>Using Robocopy for backups</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>So 10 Oktober 2010</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Backup/">Backup</a>, <a href="/tag/Windows client/">Windows client</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>Since Windows Vista, Robocopy is the 'official' CLI tool within Windows
to make full, reliable incremental backups. It has many options, but for
basic operation, only few of them are needed. For a simple mirror of one
directory or partition, you only need the parameter <code>/MIR</code>:</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="n">robocopy</span> <span class="n">D</span><span class="o">:</span><span class="n">Data</span> <span class="n">H ...</span></pre></div>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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</li>
<li><hr /></li>
<li>
<div>
<div class="header">
<h2>Define commands for later execution / auto-restore backup configurations</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Di 20 Juli 2010</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/ASA/">ASA</a>, <a href="/tag/Backup/">Backup</a>, <a href="/tag/Cisco IOS/">Cisco IOS</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>Sometimes it can be critical to configure a remote device, e.g. if you
have to configure something on the network interface over which you
reach the machine. But there are ways to ensure that you won't be locked
out forever in case something goes wrong.</p>
<p><strong>On Linux</strong>, there ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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</div>
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</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li><hr /></li>
<li>
<div>
<div class="header">
<h2>Getting a new IOS on a Cisco 836 router</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Di 15 Juni 2010</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Cisco IOS/">Cisco IOS</a>, <a href="/tag/VLAN/">VLAN</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>Some time ago I was struggling with getting a new IOS version on a 836
router. From the newer 800 series routers, 876 or 881 etc., I was used
to configure a VLAN on one of the Ethernet interfaces; then you're able
to reach the interface via TFTP at ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li><hr /></li>
<li>
<div>
<div class="header">
<h2>Access an NTFS USB drive over a Samba share</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Do 08 April 2010</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/SMB/">SMB</a>, <a href="/tag/USB/">USB</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>I needed to plug an NTFS formatted USB harddisk into my Debian home server (with Samba
file services already running on it) and access it from my PCs in the network.
To achieve full read/write access for the Windows users, you need the driver NTFS-3G.</p>
<p>Install ntfs-3g</p>
<div class="highlight"><pre><span class="n">apt</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="n">get ...</span></pre></div>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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</div>
</li>
<li><hr /></li>
<li>
<div>
<div class="header">
<h2>Share USB Printer on the network via CUPS and IPP</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Fr 19 März 2010</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/ARM/">ARM</a>, <a href="/tag/IPP/">IPP</a>, <a href="/tag/Printing/">Printing</a>, <a href="/tag/Windows client/">Windows client</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>The scenario: I have a USB printer (Samsung ML-1915) and want to be able
to use it from all workstations in the network. As it is not a network
printer, I connect it to my NAS (Debian/Ubuntu Server) and share the
printer via CUPS (Common UNIX Printing System). You ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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</div>
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</div>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li><hr /></li>
<li>
<div>
<div class="header">
<h2>Configure lost default route in Debian</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Mo 04 Januar 2010</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Debian/">Debian</a>, <a href="/tag/Linux networking/">Linux networking</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>Recently, my Debian server had no internet connection anymore and I
didn't know why.</p>
<p>I was able to ping the default gateway, and it was also configured in
/etc/network/interfaces.</p>
<p>But when I did a traceroute to any internet address, I got a "connect:
Network is unreachable" immediately ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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</div>
</li>
<li><hr /></li>
<li>
<div>
<div class="header">
<h2>Transfer PuTTY settings</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Fr 04 Dezember 2009</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/PuTTY/">PuTTY</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<p>If you would like to transfer your saved PuTTY configuration to another
Windows machine, you might wonder where this configuration is saved.
PuTTY does not use an INI file or something similar, but stores its
settings in the Registry.</p>
<p>Open the registry by running regedit and search for "SimonTatham" (the ...</p>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<li><hr /></li>
<li>
<div>
<div class="header">
<h2>Vi Editor commands</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Fr 18 September 2009</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Command reference/">Command reference</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<table style="border-collapse: collapse; table-layout: fixed; width: 351pt;" border="0" width="468" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl6421779" style="height: 15pt; width: 171pt;" colspan="3" width="228" height="20">
**Quit & Save**
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" style="width: 60pt;" width="80">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" style="width: 60pt;" width="80">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" style="width: 60pt;" width="80">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl6321779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl1521779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
:w
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" colspan="2">
Save
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl1521779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
:x
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" colspan="2">
Save & exit
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl1521779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
:q
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" colspan="4">
Quit if there have been no changes
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl1521779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
:q!
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" colspan="3">
Quit & discard changes
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl1521779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl1521779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl6421779" style="height: 15pt;" colspan="3" height="20">
**Insert / Edit**
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl6321779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl1521779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
i
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" colspan="3">
Insert mode
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl1521779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
I
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" colspan="3">
Insert at beginning of line
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl1521779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
A
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" colspan="3">
Append to end of line
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl1521779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
R
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" colspan="3">
Replace mode
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl1521779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
r
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" colspan="3">
Replace a single character
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
<td class="xl1521779">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 15pt;">
<td class="xl1521779" style="height: 15pt;" height="20">
Esc
</td>
<td class="xl1521779" colspan="3">
Exit insert or replace mode ...</td></tr></tbody></table>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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<div class="header">
<h2>Linux shell commands (categorized)</h2>
</div>
<p class="meta"><small><span><a href="/author/ben/">ben</a> - </span><span>Mi 09 September 2009</span> - <span class="tags"><a href="/tag/Command reference/">Command reference</a>, <a href="/tag/Shell/">Shell</a></span></small></p>
<div class="entry-content">
<table style="border-collapse: collapse; table-layout: fixed; width: 419pt;" width="558" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 101pt;" width="134">
</col>
<col style="width: 318pt;" width="424">
</col>
</colgroup>
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl632619" style="height: 10pt; width: 419pt;" colspan="2" width="558" height="15">
**Help**
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl102619" style="height: 10pt;" height="15">
</td>
<td class="xl102619">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl102619" style="height: 10pt;" height="15">
<span class="font52619">*command*</span><span
class="font02619">--help</span>
</td>
<td class="xl102619">
show a brief help text
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl102619" style="height: 10pt;" height="15">
man <span class="font52619">*command*</span>
</td>
<td class="xl102619">
show the man page of a command
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl102619" style="height: 10pt;" height="15">
</td>
<td class="xl102619">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl102619" style="height: 10pt;" height="15">
</td>
<td class="xl102619">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl632619" style="height: 10pt;" colspan="2" height="15">
**Files and directories**
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl102619" style="height: 10pt;" height="15">
</td>
<td class="xl102619">
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl102619" style="height: 10pt;" height="15">
cat
</td>
<td class="xl102619">
display the contents of a file
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl102619" style="height: 10pt;" height="15">
cd
</td>
<td class="xl102619">
change to the home directory
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl102619" style="height: 10pt;" height="15">
cd <span class="font52619">*directory*</span>
</td>
<td class="xl102619">
change to this directory
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl102619" style="height: 10pt;" height="15">
cd ..
</td>
<td class="xl102619">
change one directory up
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 10pt;">
<td class="xl102619" style="height: 10pt;" height="15">
cd /
</td>
<td class="xl102619">
change to ...</td></tr></tbody></table>
</div><!-- /.entry-content -->
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