diff --git a/Sources/SwiftJavaJNICore/JNIError.swift b/Sources/SwiftJavaJNICore/JNIError.swift
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9105fcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Sources/SwiftJavaJNICore/JNIError.swift
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+//===----------------------------------------------------------------------===//
+//
+// This source file is part of the Swift.org open source project
+//
+// Copyright (c) 2024 Apple Inc. and the Swift.org project authors
+// Licensed under Apache License v2.0
+//
+// See LICENSE.txt for license information
+// See CONTRIBUTORS.txt for the list of Swift.org project authors
+//
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+//
+//===----------------------------------------------------------------------===//
+
+/// Errors originating from JNI environment operations.
+public enum JNIError: Error {
+  /// The JVM was unable to allocate memory for a local reference frame.
+  ///
+  /// This occurs when `PushLocalFrame` fails, typically because the JVM
+  /// is running low on memory. The pending Java `OutOfMemoryError` is
+  /// cleared before this error is thrown.
+  ///
+  /// - Parameter framePushCapacity: The requested frame capacity that failed.
+  case outOfMemory(framePushCapacity: Int)
+}
diff --git a/Sources/SwiftJavaJNICore/JavaEnvironment+Refs.swift b/Sources/SwiftJavaJNICore/JavaEnvironment+Refs.swift
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd9494a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Sources/SwiftJavaJNICore/JavaEnvironment+Refs.swift
@@ -0,0 +1,144 @@
+//===----------------------------------------------------------------------===//
+//
+// This source file is part of the Swift.org open source project
+//
+// Copyright (c) 2024 Apple Inc. and the Swift.org project authors
+// Licensed under Apache License v2.0
+//
+// See LICENSE.txt for license information
+// See CONTRIBUTORS.txt for the list of Swift.org project authors
+//
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+//
+//===----------------------------------------------------------------------===//
+
+#if canImport(Glibc)
+import Glibc
+#elseif canImport(Musl)
+import Musl
+#elseif canImport(Bionic)
+import Bionic
+#elseif canImport(Darwin)
+import Darwin
+#elseif os(Windows)
+import ucrt
+#endif
+
+// ==== -------------------------------------------------------------------
+// MARK: Local Frame Helpers
+
+// Local references are valid for the duration of a native method call. They are
+// freed automatically after the native method returns. Each local reference
+// costs some amount of Java Virtual Machine resource. Programmers need to make
+// sure that native methods do not excessively allocate local references.
+// Although local references are automatically freed after the native method
+// returns to Java, excessive allocation of local references may cause the VM to
+// run out of memory during the execution of a native method.
+//
+// See: https://docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/21/docs/specs/jni/functions.html#local-references
+
+/// Whether to print JNI `OutOfMemoryError` stack traces to stderr.
+///
+/// Checked once on first OOM and cached. Set the environment variable
+/// `SWIFT_JAVA_JNI_EXCEPTION_DESCRIBE_OOM` to `true` or `1` to enable.
+private let describeOOMException: Bool = {
+  guard let value = getenv("SWIFT_JAVA_JNI_EXCEPTION_DESCRIBE_OOM") else {
+    return false
+  }
+  let str = String(cString: value).lowercased()
+  return str == "1" || str == "true" || str == "yes"
+}()
+
+extension UnsafeMutablePointer<JNIEnv?> {
+
+  /// Handle a `PushLocalFrame` failure by optionally describing the pending
+  /// exception to stderr, clearing it, and throwing a Swift error.
+  ///
+  /// Must be called while the `OutOfMemoryError` is still pending (i.e.
+  /// before `ExceptionClear`). `ExceptionDescribe` is safe to call with a
+  /// pending exception — it prints the stack trace to stderr and does **not**
+  /// clear the exception.
+  @inline(__always)
+  internal func throwPushLocalFrameOOM(capacity: Int) throws -> Never {
+    if describeOOMException {
+      // Print the pending OutOfMemoryError stack trace to stderr.
+      // ExceptionDescribe does not clear the exception.
+      self.interface.ExceptionDescribe(self)
+    }
+    self.interface.ExceptionClear(self)
+    throw JNIError.outOfMemory(framePushCapacity: capacity)
+  }
+
+  /// Execute `body` inside a JNI local reference frame.
+  ///
+  /// All local references created inside `body` are freed when it returns.
+  /// This prevents local reference table overflow when making many JNI calls
+  /// (e.g., in loops or from non-JVM threads like Swift's cooperative pool).
+  ///
+  /// - Parameter capacity: Hint for how many local refs will be created.
+  ///   The JVM may allocate more if needed. Must be > 0.
+  /// - Parameter body: The closure to execute inside the local frame.
+  /// - Returns: The value returned by `body`.
+  /// - Throws: ``JNIError/outOfMemory`` if `PushLocalFrame` fails, or
+  ///   rethrows any error thrown by `body`.
+  ///
+  /// ## See Also
+  /// - [JNI PushLocalFrame](https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/technotes/guides/jni/spec/functions.html#PushLocalFrame)
+  /// - [JNI PopLocalFrame](https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/technotes/guides/jni/spec/functions.html#PopLocalFrame)
+  @inline(__always)
+  public func withLocalFrame<R>(capacity: Int = 16, _ body: () throws -> R) throws -> R {
+    let pushed = self.interface.PushLocalFrame(self, Int32(capacity))
+    if pushed != JNI_OK {
+      try self.throwPushLocalFrameOOM(capacity: capacity)
+    }
+    defer { _ = self.interface.PopLocalFrame(self, nil) }
+    return try body()
+  }
+
+  /// Execute `body` inside a JNI local reference frame, promoting one result
+  /// object to the outer frame.
+  ///
+  /// All local references created inside `body` are freed, **except** for the
+  /// returned `jobject` which is promoted to the enclosing frame via
+  /// `PopLocalFrame(env, result)`.
+  ///
+  /// Use this when constructing a new Java object inside a frame that needs
+  /// to survive after the frame is popped.
+  ///
+  /// - Parameter capacity: Hint for how many local refs will be created.
+  /// - Parameter body: Closure that returns the `jobject` to promote.
+  /// - Returns: A new local reference in the outer frame to the same object.
+  /// - Throws: ``JNIError/outOfMemory`` if `PushLocalFrame` fails, or
+  ///   rethrows any error thrown by `body`.
+  ///
+  /// ## See Also
+  /// - [JNI PushLocalFrame](https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/technotes/guides/jni/spec/functions.html#PushLocalFrame)
+  /// - [JNI PopLocalFrame](https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/technotes/guides/jni/spec/functions.html#PopLocalFrame)
+  @inline(__always)
+  public func withLocalFramePromotingResult(capacity: Int = 16, _ body: () throws -> jobject?) throws -> jobject? {
+    let pushed = self.interface.PushLocalFrame(self, Int32(capacity))
+    if pushed != JNI_OK {
+      try self.throwPushLocalFrameOOM(capacity: capacity)
+    }
+    do {
+      let result = try body()
+      return self.interface.PopLocalFrame(self, result)
+    } catch {
+      // Pop the frame (freeing all inner refs) before rethrowing.
+      _ = self.interface.PopLocalFrame(self, nil)
+      throw error
+    }
+  }
+
+  /// Delete a local reference.
+  ///
+  /// Shorthand for `interface.DeleteLocalRef(self, ref)`. Safe to call with
+  /// `nil` (no-op).
+  ///
+  /// ## See Also
+  /// - [JNI DeleteLocalRef](https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/technotes/guides/jni/spec/functions.html#DeleteLocalRef)
+  @inline(__always)
+  public func deleteLocalRef(_ ref: jobject?) {
+    self.interface.DeleteLocalRef(self, ref)
+  }
+}
diff --git a/Tests/SwiftJavaJNICoreTests/JavaEnvironmentTests.swift b/Tests/SwiftJavaJNICoreTests/JavaEnvironmentTests.swift
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c62119
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Tests/SwiftJavaJNICoreTests/JavaEnvironmentTests.swift
@@ -0,0 +1,132 @@
+//===----------------------------------------------------------------------===//
+//
+// This source file is part of the Swift.org open source project
+//
+// Copyright (c) 2026 Apple Inc. and the Swift.org project authors
+// Licensed under Apache License v2.0
+//
+// See LICENSE.txt for license information
+// See CONTRIBUTORS.txt for the list of Swift.org project authors
+//
+// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0
+//
+//===----------------------------------------------------------------------===//
+
+import Testing
+
+@testable import SwiftJavaJNICore
+
+#if canImport(FoundationEssentials)
+import class FoundationEssentials.ProcessInfo
+#else
+import class Foundation.ProcessInfo
+#endif
+
+@Suite
+struct JavaEnvironmentTests {
+
+  static var isSupportedPlatform: Bool {
+    #if os(Android)
+    let testSentinel = "0"
+    #else
+    let testSentinel = "1"
+    #endif
+    return (ProcessInfo.processInfo.environment["SWIFT_JAVA_JNI_TEST_JVM"] ?? testSentinel) != "0"
+  }
+
+  @Test(.enabled(if: isSupportedPlatform))
+  func withLocalFrame_returnsBodyValue() throws {
+    let env = try JavaVirtualMachine.shared().environment()
+
+    let result = try env.withLocalFrame(capacity: 4) {
+      42
+    }
+    #expect(result == 42)
+  }
+
+  @Test(.enabled(if: isSupportedPlatform))
+  func withLocalFrame_defaultCapacity() throws {
+    let env = try JavaVirtualMachine.shared().environment()
+
+    let result = try env.withLocalFrame {
+      "hello"
+    }
+    #expect(result == "hello")
+  }
+
+  @Test(.enabled(if: isSupportedPlatform))
+  func withLocalFrame_rethrowsErrors() throws {
+    let env = try JavaVirtualMachine.shared().environment()
+
+    struct TestError: Error {}
+
+    #expect(throws: TestError.self) {
+      try env.withLocalFrame {
+        throw TestError()
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test(.enabled(if: isSupportedPlatform))
+  func withLocalFrame_localRefsWorkInsideFrame() throws {
+    let env = try JavaVirtualMachine.shared().environment()
+
+    try env.withLocalFrame(capacity: 8) {
+      // Create a local ref inside the frame — it should be valid here
+      let cls = env.interface.FindClass(env, "java/lang/String")
+      #expect(cls != nil, "Should be able to find java.lang.String inside frame")
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test(.enabled(if: isSupportedPlatform))
+  func withLocalFramePromotingResult_promotesObject() throws {
+    let env = try JavaVirtualMachine.shared().environment()
+
+    let promoted = try env.withLocalFramePromotingResult(capacity: 8) { () -> jobject? in
+      // Create a Java String inside the frame
+      let str = env.interface.NewStringUTF(env, "test")
+      return str
+    }
+
+    // The promoted reference should still be valid in the outer frame
+    #expect(promoted != nil, "Promoted reference should not be nil")
+
+    // Verify it's a valid object by getting its class
+    let cls = env.interface.GetObjectClass(env, promoted)
+    #expect(cls != nil, "Promoted object should have a valid class")
+
+    env.deleteLocalRef(promoted)
+    env.deleteLocalRef(cls)
+  }
+
+  @Test(.enabled(if: isSupportedPlatform))
+  func withLocalFramePromotingResult_nilResult() throws {
+    let env = try JavaVirtualMachine.shared().environment()
+
+    let result = try env.withLocalFramePromotingResult {
+      nil
+    }
+    #expect(result == nil)
+  }
+
+  @Test(.enabled(if: isSupportedPlatform))
+  func withLocalFramePromotingResult_rethrowsErrors() throws {
+    let env = try JavaVirtualMachine.shared().environment()
+
+    struct TestError: Error {}
+
+    #expect(throws: TestError.self) {
+      try env.withLocalFramePromotingResult {
+        throw TestError()
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  @Test(.enabled(if: isSupportedPlatform))
+  func deleteLocalRef_nilIsSafe() throws {
+    let env = try JavaVirtualMachine.shared().environment()
+
+    // Should not crash
+    env.deleteLocalRef(nil)
+  }
+}