some-go-benchmarks

Micro-benchmarks for Go concurrency patterns in polling hot-loops.

⚠️ Scope: These benchmarks apply to polling patterns (with default: case) where you check channels millions of times per second. Most Go code uses blocking patterns instead—see Polling vs Blocking before drawing conclusions.

📖 New to this repo? Start with the Walkthrough for a guided tour with example outputs.

Results at a Glance

Measured on AMD Ryzen Threadripper PRO 3945WX, Go 1.25, Linux:

Isolated Operations

Operation	Standard	Optimized	Speedup
Cancel check	8.2 ns	0.36 ns	23x
Tick check	86 ns	5.6 ns	15x

Queue Patterns: SPSC vs MPSC

Queue performance depends heavily on your goroutine topology:

SPSC (1 Producer → 1 Consumer):

Implementation	Latency	Speedup
Channel	248 ns	baseline
go-lock-free-ring (1 shard)	114 ns	2.2x
Our SPSC Ring (unguarded)	36.5 ns	6.8x

MPSC (Multiple Producers → 1 Consumer):

Producers	Channel	go-lock-free-ring	Speedup
4	35 µs	539 ns	65x
8	47 µs	464 ns	101x

Key insight: Channels scale terribly with multiple producers due to lock contention. For MPSC patterns, go-lock-free-ring provides 65-100x speedup through sharded lock-free design.

Combined Hot-Loop Pattern

for {
    if ctx.Done() { return }      // ← Cancel check
    if ticker.Tick() { flush() }  // ← Tick check
    process(queue.Pop())          // ← Queue op
}

Pattern	Standard	Optimized	Speedup
Cancel + Tick	90 ns	27 ns	3.4x
Full loop	130 ns	63 ns	2.1x

Real-World Impact

Throughput	Standard CPU	Optimized CPU	You Save
100K ops/sec	1.3%	0.6%	0.7% of a core
1M ops/sec	13%	6%	7% of a core
10M ops/sec	130%	63%	67% of a core

TL;DR: At 10M ops/sec, switching to optimized patterns frees up 2/3 of a CPU core.

---

The Problem

At the scale of millions of operations per second, idiomatic Go constructs like select on time.Ticker or standard channels introduce significant overhead. These bottlenecks stem from:

• Runtime Scheduling: The cost of parking/unparking goroutines.
• Lock Contention: The centralized timer heap in the Go runtime.
• Channel Internals: The overhead of hchan locking and memory barriers.

Example of code that can hit limits in tight loops:

select {
case <-ctx.Done(): return
case <-dropTicker.C: ...
default:  // Non-blocking: returns immediately if nothing ready
}

Polling vs Blocking: When Do These Benchmarks Apply?

Most Go code blocks rather than polls. Understanding this distinction is critical for interpreting these benchmarks.

Blocking (Idiomatic Go)

select {
case <-ctx.Done():
    return
case v := <-ch:
    process(v)
// No default: goroutine parks until something is ready
}

• How it works: Goroutine yields to scheduler, wakes when a channel is ready
• CPU usage: Near zero while waiting
• Latency: Adds ~1-5µs scheduler wake-up time
• When to use: 99% of Go code—network servers, background workers, most pipelines

Polling (Hot-Loop)

for {
    select {
    case <-ctx.Done():
        return
    case v := <-ch:
        process(v)
    default:
        // Do other work, check again immediately
    }
}

• How it works: Goroutine never parks, continuously checks channels
• CPU usage: 100% of one core while running
• Latency: Sub-microsecond response to channel events
• When to use: High-throughput loops, soft real-time, packet processing

Which World Are You In?

Your Situation	Pattern	These Benchmarks Apply?
HTTP server handlers	Blocking	❌ Scheduler cost dominates
Background job worker	Blocking	❌ Use standard patterns
Packet processing at 1M+ pps	Polling	✅ Check overhead matters
Game loop / audio processing	Polling	✅ Every nanosecond counts
Streaming data pipeline	Either	⚠️ Depends on throughput

Key insight: In blocking code, the scheduler wake-up cost (~1-5µs) dwarfs the channel check overhead (~20ns). Optimizing the check is pointless. In polling code, you're paying that check cost millions of times per second—that's where these optimizations shine.

Benchmarked Patterns

This repo benchmarks polling hot-loop patterns where check overhead is the bottleneck.

Isolated Micro-Benchmarks

Measure the raw cost of individual operations:

Category	Standard Approach	Optimized Alternatives
Cancellation	select on ctx.Done()	atomic.Bool flag
Messaging	Buffered chan (SPSC)	Lock-free Ring Buffer
Time/Tick	time.Ticker in select	Batching / Atomic / nanotime / TSC assembly

Combined Interaction Benchmarks

The most credible guidance comes from testing interactions, not isolated micro-costs:

Benchmark	What It Measures
context-ticker	Combined cost of checking cancellation + periodic tick
channel-context	Message processing with cancellation check per message
full-loop	Realistic hot loop: receive → process → check cancel → check tick

Why combined matters: Isolated benchmarks can be misleading. A 10x speedup on context checking means nothing if your loop is bottlenecked on channel receives. The combined benchmarks reveal the actual improvement in realistic scenarios.

Queue Benchmarks: Goroutine Patterns

Queue performance varies dramatically based on goroutine topology. We benchmark three implementations:

Implementation	Type	Best For
Go Channel	MPSC	Simple code, moderate throughput
Our SPSC Ring	SPSC	Maximum SPSC performance, zero allocs
go-lock-free-ring	MPSC	High-throughput multi-producer scenarios

SPSC: 1 Producer → 1 Consumer

Cross-goroutine polling (our benchmark - separate producer/consumer goroutines):

Implementation	Latency	Allocs	Speedup
Channel	248 ns	0	baseline
go-lock-free-ring (1 shard)	114 ns	1	2.2x
Our SPSC Ring (unguarded)	36.5 ns	0	6.8x

Same-goroutine (go-lock-free-ring native benchmarks):

Benchmark	Latency	Notes
BenchmarkWrite	35 ns	Single write operation
BenchmarkTryRead	31 ns	Single read operation
BenchmarkProducerConsumer	31 ns	Write + periodic drain in same goroutine
BenchmarkConcurrentWrite (8 producers)	10.7 ns	Parallel writes, sharded

Note: Cross-goroutine coordination adds ~80ns overhead. For batched same-goroutine patterns, go-lock-free-ring achieves 31 ns/op.

MPSC: N Producers → 1 Consumer

This is where go-lock-free-ring shines:

Producers	Channel	go-lock-free-ring	Speedup
4	35.3 µs	539 ns	65x
8	47.1 µs	464 ns	101x

Key insight: Channel lock contention scales terribly. With 8 producers, go-lock-free-ring is 101x faster due to its sharded design.

Choosing the Right Queue

Your Pattern	Recommendation	Why
1 producer, 1 consumer	Our SPSC Ring	Fastest, zero allocs
N producers, 1 consumer	go-lock-free-ring	Sharding eliminates contention
Simple/infrequent	Channel	Simplicity, good enough

Why Our SPSC Ring is Faster in Cross-Goroutine Tests

For SPSC scenarios with separate producer/consumer goroutines, our simple ring (36.5 ns) beats go-lock-free-ring (114 ns).

Important: go-lock-free-ring's native benchmarks show ~31 ns/op for producer-consumer, but that's in the same goroutine. Our 114 ns measurement is for cross-goroutine polling, which adds coordination overhead. Both measurements are valid for their respective patterns.

Here's why our ring is faster in cross-goroutine scenarios:

1. CAS vs Simple Store

go-lock-free-ring must use Compare-And-Swap to safely handle multiple producers:

// go-lock-free-ring: CAS to claim slot (expensive!)
if !atomic.CompareAndSwapUint64(&s.writePos, pos, pos+1) {
    continue  // Retry if another producer won
}

Our SPSC ring just does a simple atomic store:

// Our SPSC: simple store (fast!)
r.head.Store(head + 1)

CAS is 3-10x more expensive than a simple store because it must read, compare, and conditionally write while handling cache invalidation across cores.

2. Sequence Numbers for Race Protection

go-lock-free-ring uses per-slot sequence numbers to prevent a consumer from reading partially-written data:

// go-lock-free-ring: extra atomic ops for safety
seq := atomic.LoadUint64(&sl.seq)      // Check slot ready
if seq != pos { return false }
// ... write value ...
atomic.StoreUint64(&sl.seq, pos+1)     // Signal to reader

Our SPSC ring skips this because we trust only one producer exists.

3. Boxing Allocations

// go-lock-free-ring uses 'any' → 8 B allocation per write
sl.value = value

// Our ring uses generics → zero allocations
r.buf[head&r.mask] = v

What We Give Up:

Safety Feature	Our SPSC Ring	go-lock-free-ring
Multiple producers	❌ Undefined behavior	✅ Safe
Race protection	❌ Trust-based	✅ Sequence numbers
Weak memory (ARM)	⚠️ May need barriers	✅ Proven safe

Bottom line: Our SPSC ring is faster because it makes dangerous assumptions (single producer, x86 memory model). go-lock-free-ring is slower because it's provably safe for MPSC with explicit race protection. Use go-lock-free-ring for production multi-producer scenarios.

Why Our Guarded RingBuffer is Slow

The in-repo RingBuffer includes debug guards that add ~25ns overhead:

func (r *RingBuffer[T]) Push(v T) bool {
    if !r.pushActive.CompareAndSwap(0, 1) { // +10-15ns
        panic("concurrent Push")
    }
    defer r.pushActive.Store(0)             // +10-15ns
    // ...
}

For production: Use the unguarded version or go-lock-free-ring.

High-Performance Alternatives

Lock-Free Ring Buffers

We provide two lock-free queue implementations with different safety/performance tradeoffs:

1. Our SPSC Ring Buffer (internal/queue/ringbuf.go)

• Single-Producer, Single-Consumer only
• Generics-based ([T any]) — zero boxing allocations
• Simple atomic Load/Store (no CAS) — maximum speed
• Debug guards catch contract violations (disable for production)
• ⚠️ No race protection — trusts caller to maintain SPSC contract
• ⚠️ x86 optimized — may need memory barriers on ARM
• Best for: Dedicated producer/consumer goroutine pairs where you control both ends

2. go-lock-free-ring (external library)

• Multi-Producer, Single-Consumer (MPSC)
• Sharded design reduces contention across producers
• Uses CAS + sequence numbers for proven race-free operation
• Uses any type (causes boxing allocations)
• Configurable retry strategies for different load patterns
• ✅ Production-tested at 2300+ Mb/s throughput
• Best for: Fan-in patterns, worker pools, high-throughput pipelines

Feature	Our SPSC Ring	go-lock-free-ring
Producers	1 only	Multiple
Consumers	1 only	1 only
Allocations	0	1+ (boxing)
SPSC latency	36.5 ns	114 ns
8-producer latency	N/A	464 ns
Race protection	❌ None	✅ Sequence numbers
Write mechanism	Store	CAS + retry
Production ready	⚠️ SPSC only	✅ Battle-tested

Atomic Flags for Cancellation

Instead of polling ctx.Done() in a select block, we use an atomic.Bool updated by a separate watcher goroutine. This replaces a channel receive with a much faster atomic load operation.

Ticker Alternatives (Under Development)

Standard time.Ticker uses the runtime's central timer heap, which can cause contention in high-performance apps. We are exploring:

• Batch-based counters: Only checking the time every N operations.
• Atomic time-sampling: Using a single global goroutine to update an atomic timestamp.

The "Every N" Batch Check

If your loop processes items rapidly, checking the clock on every iteration is expensive. Instead, check the time only once every 1,000 or 10,000 iterations.

if count++; count % 1000 == 0 {
    if time.Since(lastTick) >= interval {
        // Run logic
        lastTick = time.Now()
    }
}

Atomic Global Timestamp

If you have many goroutines that all need a "ticker," don't give them each a time.Ticker. Use one background goroutine that updates a global atomic variable with the current Unix nanoseconds. Your workers can then perform a simple atomic comparison.

Busy-Wait "Spin" Ticker

For sub-microsecond precision where CPU usage is less important than latency, you can "spin" on the CPU until a specific runtime.nanotime is reached. This avoids the overhead of the Go scheduler parking and unparking your goroutine.

Assembly-based TSC (Time Stamp Counter)

For the lowest possible latency on x86, bypass the OS clock entirely and read the CPU's TSC directly. This is significantly faster than time.Now() because it avoids the overhead of the Go runtime and VDSO.

• Mechanism: Use a small assembly stub or unsafe to call the RDTSC instruction.
• Trade-off: Requires calibration (mapping cycles to nanoseconds) and can be affected by CPU frequency scaling.

// internal/tick/tsc_amd64.s
TEXT ·rdtsc(SB), NOSPLIT, $0-8
    RDTSC
    SHLQ $32, DX
    ORQ  DX, AX
    MOVQ AX, ret+0(FP)
    RET

runtime.nanotime (Internal Clock)

The Go runtime has an internal function nanotime() that returns a monotonic clock value. It is faster than time.Now() because it returns a single int64 and avoids the overhead of constructing a time.Time struct.

• Mechanism: Access via //go:linkname.
• Benefit: Provides a middle ground between standard library safety and raw assembly speed.

//go:linkname nanotime runtime.nanotime
func nanotime() int64

Repo Layout

.
├── cmd/                        # CLI tools for interactive benchmarking
│   ├── channel/main.go         # Queue comparison demo
│   ├── context/main.go         # Cancel check comparison demo
│   ├── context-ticker/main.go  # Combined benchmark demo
│   └── ticker/main.go          # Tick check comparison demo
│
├── internal/
│   ├── cancel/                 # Cancellation signaling
│   │   ├── cancel.go           # Canceler interface
│   │   ├── context.go          # Standard: ctx.Done() via select
│   │   ├── atomic.go           # Optimized: atomic.Bool
│   │   └── *_test.go           # Unit + benchmark tests
│   │
│   ├── queue/                  # SPSC message passing
│   │   ├── queue.go            # Queue[T] interface
│   │   ├── channel.go          # Standard: buffered channel
│   │   ├── ringbuf.go          # Optimized: lock-free ring buffer
│   │   └── *_test.go           # Unit + benchmark + contract tests
│   │
│   ├── tick/                   # Periodic triggers
│   │   ├── tick.go             # Ticker interface
│   │   ├── ticker.go           # Standard: time.Ticker
│   │   ├── batch.go            # Optimized: check every N ops
│   │   ├── atomic.go           # Optimized: runtime.nanotime
│   │   ├── tsc_amd64.go/.s     # Optimized: raw RDTSC (x86 only)
│   │   ├── tsc_stub.go         # Stub for non-x86 architectures
│   │   └── *_test.go           # Unit + benchmark tests
│   │
│   └── combined/               # Interaction benchmarks
│       └── combined_bench_test.go
│
├── .github/workflows/ci.yml    # CI: multi-version, multi-platform
├── Makefile                    # Build targets
├── README.md                   # This file
├── WALKTHROUGH.md              # Guided tutorial with example output
├── BENCHMARKING.md             # Environment setup & methodology
├── IMPLEMENTATION_PLAN.md      # Design document
└── IMPLEMENTATION_LOG.md       # Development log

Key directories:

• internal/ — Core library implementations (standard vs optimized)
• cmd/ — CLI tools that demonstrate the libraries with human-readable output
• .github/workflows/ — CI testing across Go 1.21-1.23, Linux/macOS

How to Run

# Run all tests
go test ./...

# Run benchmarks with memory stats
go test -bench=. -benchmem ./internal/...

# Run specific benchmark with multiple iterations (recommended for microbenches)
go test -run=^$ -bench=BenchmarkQueue -count=10 ./internal/queue

# Run with race detector (slower, but catches concurrency bugs)
go test -race ./...

# Compare results with benchstat (install: go install golang.org/x/perf/cmd/benchstat@latest)
go test -bench=. -count=10 ./internal/cancel > old.txt
# make changes...
go test -bench=. -count=10 ./internal/cancel > new.txt
benchstat old.txt new.txt

Interpreting Results

Micro-benchmarks measure one dimension in one environment. Keep these caveats in mind:

Factor	Impact
Go version	Runtime internals change between releases
CPU architecture	x86 vs ARM, cache sizes, branch prediction
GOMAXPROCS	Contention patterns vary with parallelism
Power management	Turbo boost, frequency scaling affect TSC
Thermal state	Sustained load causes thermal throttling

Recommendations:

1. Use benchstat — Run benchmarks 10+ times and use benchstat to get statistically meaningful comparisons
2. Pin CPU frequency — For TSC benchmarks: sudo cpupower frequency-set -g performance
3. Isolate cores — For lowest variance: taskset -c 0 go test -bench=...
4. Test your workload — These are micro-benchmarks; your mileage will vary in real applications
5. Profile, don't assume — Use go tool pprof to confirm where time actually goes

Remember: A 10x speedup on a 20ns operation saves 180ns per call. If your loop runs 1M times/second, that's 180ms saved per second. If it runs 1000 times/second, that's 0.18ms—probably not worth the complexity.

Library Design

The internal/ package provides minimal, focused implementations for benchmarking. Each sub-package exposes a single interface with two implementations: the standard library approach and the optimized alternative.

Package Structure

internal/
├── cancel/          # Cancellation signaling
│   ├── cancel.go    # Interface definition
│   ├── context.go   # Standard: ctx.Done() via select
│   └── atomic.go    # Optimized: atomic.Bool flag
│
├── queue/           # SPSC message passing
│   ├── queue.go     # Interface definition
│   ├── channel.go   # Standard: buffered channel
│   └── ringbuf.go   # Optimized: lock-free ring buffer
│
└── tick/            # Periodic triggers
    ├── tick.go      # Interface definition
    ├── ticker.go    # Standard: time.Ticker in select
    ├── batch.go     # Optimized: check every N ops
    ├── atomic.go    # Optimized: shared atomic timestamp
    ├── nanotime.go  # Optimized: runtime.nanotime via linkname
    └── tsc_amd64.s  # Optimized: raw RDTSC assembly (x86)

Interfaces

Each package defines a minimal interface that both implementations satisfy:

// internal/cancel/cancel.go
package cancel

// Canceler signals shutdown to workers.
type Canceler interface {
    Done() bool   // Returns true if cancelled
    Cancel()      // Trigger cancellation
}

// internal/queue/queue.go
package queue

// Queue is a single-producer single-consumer queue.
type Queue[T any] interface {
    Push(T) bool  // Returns false if full
    Pop() (T, bool)
}

// internal/tick/tick.go
package tick

// Ticker signals periodic events.
type Ticker interface {
    Tick() bool   // Returns true if interval elapsed
    Reset()       // Reset without reallocation
    Stop()
}

Constructors

Standard Go convention—return concrete types, accept interfaces:

// Standard implementations
cancel.NewContext(ctx context.Context) *ContextCanceler
queue.NewChannel[T any](size int) *ChannelQueue[T]
tick.NewTicker(interval time.Duration) *StdTicker

// Optimized implementations
cancel.NewAtomic() *AtomicCanceler
queue.NewRingBuffer[T any](size int) *RingBuffer[T]
tick.NewBatch(interval time.Duration, every int) *BatchTicker
tick.NewAtomicTicker(interval time.Duration) *AtomicTicker
tick.NewNanotime(interval time.Duration) *NanotimeTicker
tick.NewTSC(interval, cyclesPerNs float64) *TSCTicker  // x86 only
tick.NewTSCCalibrated(interval time.Duration) *TSCTicker  // auto-calibrates

Benchmark Pattern

Each cmd/ binary follows the same structure:

func main() {
    // Parse flags for iterations, warmup, etc.

    // Run standard implementation
    std := runBenchmark(standardImpl, iterations)

    // Run optimized implementation
    opt := runBenchmark(optimizedImpl, iterations)

    // Print comparison
    fmt.Printf("Standard: %v\nOptimized: %v\nSpeedup: %.2fx\n",
        std, opt, float64(std)/float64(opt))
}

Design Principles

1. No abstraction for abstraction's sake—interfaces exist only because we need to swap implementations
2. Zero allocations in hot paths—pre-allocate, reuse, avoid escape to heap
3. Benchmark-friendly—implementations expose internals needed for accurate measurement
4. Copy-paste ready—each optimized implementation is self-contained for easy extraction